2.i The
training process - a brief overview
Training
will only be effective if it is designed to meet identified
needs. Training which is not designed with this end in
sight is likely to be largely irrelevant, and irrelevant
training undermines the motivation of learners and is a
waste of resources.
Consequently,
it is worth being aware of the stages in the training process,
even if not all aspects of each stage are going to be a
direct concern for trainers in tribunals. An awareness
of the process, and an understanding of its stages and
purposes, will enable the trainer to make informed and
appropriate choices about training.
Stage
one:
Entry to the training process. Contact made with the person or organisation
commissioning the training and a contract drawn up (see 2ii and 3i).
Stage
two:
Diagnosis of training needs. Contact made with other interested parties
and training needs analysis undertaken (see 3i)
Stage
three:
Training designed in the light of outcome of stage two (see 3ii -
3vi incl).
Stage
four:
Training delivered (see 4).
Stage
five:
Training validated and evaluated (see 5)
Stage
six:
Training design modified if necessary in the light of stage five
A
model of the training process:
The
model aims to emphasise the continuity of the process,
whereby each stage influences the next. In particular,
evaluation - the assessment of the longer-term benefits
of training - may lead the trainer to vary the content
of the training and the methods used: it may even lead
the trainer to undertake further diagnosis of training
needs.
The
term "diagnosis" refers to the process of researching and
identifying training needs; "design" is the actual creation
of a training activity; and “delivery” is the putting into
practice of that activity.
2.ii Entry
to the training process
"Entry" means
setting up new interpersonal relationships, engaging in
new interactions with people. Moreover, we use the term "entry" because
as a trainer you may not necessarily be initiating the
training process: you may be joining it at a later stage.
For example, you may be asked simply to deliver an established
training programme, and to leave evaluation to someone
else. However, it’s worth stressing that - as we saw in
2.i - every stage in the process is influenced by the earlier
ones, and every stage will influence those that follow.
For example, the outcomes of evaluation may prompt further
diagnosis and the modification of training design.
2.iii Experiential
learning and preferred learning styles: principles
and practices
As
its name suggests, experiential learning theory is based
on the premise that people - children and adults - learn
most effectively through experience. The theory is commonly
credited to David A Kolb, who believed that, having had
an actual experience, the individual subsequently reflected
upon it, came to a general conclusion, and decided upon
how to act in similar situations in the future.
A
crude example could be one wherein having cold hands, I
plunge them into an open fire. This is certainly a concrete
experience, and I would be wise to reflect on it. I probably
draw the conclusion that the problem of cold hands is not
best resolved by the action I took. I plan that in future,
I will keep my hands at a safe distance from the flames,
getting their benefit without injury to myself.
Learning
styles
Kolb’s learning theory was subsequently developed by
Honey and Mumford who identified four learning styles:
-
activist
-
reflector
-
theorist
-
pragmatist
Every
individual has a preference, however mild, towards one
of these four learning styles: and every individual has
the potential to increase their effectiveness in the
other three.
Defining
the activist
Activists like to immerse themselves fully and without prejudice
in new experiences. They are open-minded, gregarious and lacking
in scepticism. They thrive on excitement and are easily bored by
long-term projects. They relish challenges.
They
also have a tendency towards taking the immediately obvious
action without thinking through the consequences: and,
out of a desire to be the centre of attention, towards
taking on too much.
Activists
learn best from:
- new
experiences, problems, and opportunities;
- games,
competitive team-work tasks, and role-play exercises;
- a
diversity of activities from which to learn;
- the
opportunity to take the lead;
- the
opportunity to generate ideas without constraint;
- working
with other people
Activists
learn least from:
Defining
the reflector
Reflectors like to stand back from and give thought to their experiences,
and to consider them from a multiplicity of perspectives. Their
underlying caution encourages them to defer drawing conclusions
until all available information has been collated and analysed.
They are thoughtful and considerate, and are good listeners.
They
also have a tendency towards withdrawal from participation,
and towards what may be perceived as a lack of decisiveness.
They are not particularly assertive.
Reflectors
learn best from:
- the
opportunity to observe and reflect upon activities;
- the
opportunity to prepare and review activities in which
they are involved;
- exchanging
views with other people within a structured learning
process: for example, one where there has been a clear
initial overview and an agreed behavioural contract;
- being
able to work at their own pace within their own timscales
Reflectors
learn least from:
- situations
where they are forced into the limelight;
- activities
which are based on spontaneity;
- an
insufficiency of information and/or time;
- situations
where expediency requires them to cut corners
Defining
the theorist
Theorists like to organise disparate observations and facts into
theories which are logical and coherent. They are keen on fundamental
principles, models and systems. Their approach to the task in hand
will be rational, objective and disciplined.
They
tend to be intolerant of uncertainty and ambiguity, and
of anything subjective or intuitive.
Theorists
learn best from:
-
a
systematic, methodical, structured approach;
-
the
opportunity to explore the relationships between ideas,
events and situations;
-
the
opportunity to probe and to be intellectually stretched;
-
situations
which require them to be analytical
Theorists
learn least from:
- activities
which appear not to have a clearly-defined context,
structure and purpose;
- situations
which are fluid and affective;
- content
which has not been tried and tested and processes which
they consider to be gimmicky;
- events
where they feel out of tune with other participants
Defining
the pragmatist
Pragmatists like to try out ideas, theories and techniques to see
if they work in practice. They are essentially practical people who
thrive on decision-making and problem-solving, considering the latter
to be a challenge. They are realistic and business-like.
They
also tend to reject anything that doesn’t have a practical
application, and to be uninterested in theories and basic
principles. They are oriented to the task in hand, not
to people.
Pragmatists
learn best from:
-
clear
and strong links between the learning activity and
its practical application at work;
-
models
they can take away and use, and action plans with a
definite outcome;
-
the
opportunity to practise tecniques and to get feedback
from an expert whom they respect
-
Pragmatists
learn least from:
-
activities
which appear not to have a direct and immediate practical
application;
-
situations
where definite conclusions are not reached quickly;
-
trainers
who seem distant from reality
2.iv Behavioural
and motivational issues
Since
learning is a change in behaviour brought about by experience,
and since learners have to be motivated to learn, it
follows that it is important for trainers to be able
to motivate learners, and to be able to understand behaviours.
Motivation
There are many theories of motivation. One that seems particularly
relevant to the training process is Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy
of needs. Maslow believed that human needs could be organised
in a progressive hierarchy, physiological needs being the most
basic, self-actualisation needs being the highest. The needs
identified by Maslow are as follows:
physiological:
this is the need for food, water, air - the things that
are necessary to keep the body in a state of equilibrium,
that are necessary for survival. In the context of training,
this may relate to ensuring that participants know where
the toilets are and that they know where to get food
and refreshment
safety:
this is the need for physical and psychological safety
and security, for shelter, for freedom from physical
or psychological attack. In the context of training,
this may relate to an agreement - sometimes called a
behavioural contract - about what kinds of behaviour
and use of words will be acceptable and unacceptable
to the group
belonging:
this is the need to relate meaningfully to others, to
engage in friendships, to give and to receive affection,
to belong to a group. In the context of training, this
may relate to the need of all participants to feel confident
about taking part in the learning process
esteem:
this is the need for self-respect and the respect of
others; for competence, independence, self-confidence
and self-esteem. In the context of training, this may
relate to ensuring that everyone’s contribution is listened
to and respected
self-actualisation:
this is the need to become everything one is capable
of becoming; to achieve self-fulfillment; to be able
to express oneself and to be creative. In the context
of training, this may relate to ensuring that participants
have gained new knowledge, skills and insights as a result
of undertaking the training, and that they will be able
to put these to practical use
This
theory holds that only when a lower need has been satisfied
can the next highest one become dominant and the individual’s
interest turned towards satisfying it.
Maslow
suggested that only an unsatisfied need can motivate
human behaviour, the dominant need being the prime motivator.
There is not necessarily a straightforward progression
from lower to higher needs: circumstances may force someone
to direct their energies towards fulfilling lower level
needs which have for some time been satisfied. In this
event, higher needs will be temporarily forgotten.
Transactional
analysis
This approach to the understanding of human behaviour was developed
in the late 1950s by Eric Berne. It aims to provide a straightforward
and rigorous theory about why people behave in certain ways in
certain situations. A principle concept of transactional analysis
- ego states and transactions - is described briefly below.
Ego
states: Berne suggested that the personality
consisted of three distinct ego states: Parent, Adult
and Child. These terms do not refer to actual parents,
adults and children, and to avoid confusion the formulation
PAC is used.
A
key principle of transactional analysis (TA) is that
at any one given moment, we are operating in one of the
three ego states: and consequently our behaviour is driven
by whatever data is stored in that ego state. Moreover,
we are able to move from one ego state to another - in
much the same way as we can change the wavelength on
a radio or move from one software package to another.
In
the Parent ego state is the taught version of
life: behaviours, attitudes and precepts copied in the
early years of life from parents and figures of authority.
In
the Child ego state is the felt version of life:
recordings of feelings that were actually experienced
in early life.
Finally,
there is the Adult ego state, which is the thought version
of life. Rational and autonomous, it works like a computer,
updating the data in the Parent and Child ego states
so that our responses and behaviours are appropriate
to the here and now, rather than driven by old precepts
and feelings from our childhood. It is the Adult ego
state which enables us to “move on”, instead of being
governed by our past.
Using
the model of the ego states, transactional analysis aims
to provide an understanding of why people sometimes behave
the way they do to one another in particular situations:
why at times two individuals may be communicating well,
and why at other times they may be talking at "cross
purposes."
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